The English Civil War

I. Protestant Reformation

A. Martin Luther--nailed his 95 Theses on the door of the Church in Wittenberg, Germany, protesting principally the sale of “indulgences”--documents that absolved people of sins and promised them a passport to heaven.

1. Also disputed other theological points--relating to church ceremonies, the role of priests as intermediaries between believers and God, and over the right of the pope to discipline the priesthood.

2. Luther’s challenge to religious orthodoxy could not avoid also challenging the social and political practices of the time, as well. This plunged much of Europe into almost constant warfare or civil strife for much of the next 125 years or so, because of what effectively happened was that the whole construction of medieval society was called into question.

B. Jean (John) Calvin

1. Calvinism

a) Predestination-- in theology, the belief that human action had no effect upon salvation; one was a member of “God’s elect,” or not--and most were not. Any good works that one might undertake had no effect on whether one would be saved, or not.

2. Effects of Calvinist theology--with salvation moved out of the realm of man’s control, and good works now having no effect on that salvation, it became possible to view one’s economic standing as a reflection of God’s will, and undermined the obligations of the better off to assist the less fortunate.

II. Reformation in England

A. Henry VIII

1. Marriage to Catherine of Aragon

a) Related to Spanish monarchy

b) Catherine was married briefly to Henry’s older brother, Arthur, who died shortly after the marriage. Rather than return the considerable dowry, Henry VII proposed Catherine marry his younger son Henry, 5 years here junior--but had to wait until he came of age.

c) Issue of marriage to a close relative (sister-in-law) was raised, but Catherine swore the marriage was never consummated (and the Pope would have probably granted dispensation, anyway)



d) Only one child from this union, Mary (later known as “Bloody Mary,” for reasons that will become obvious) lived past infancy. Henry felt marriage was cursed, no male heir, and attracted to one of his wife’s “ladies in waiting,” asked Pope Clement to annul the marriage

e) Pope’s decision--upset the most powerful monarchy (Spain), displease his “host” (pope was a “guest” of Catherine’s nephew, the king of what was left of the Holy Roman Empire), or anger the monarch of a minor kingdom located on some godforsaken island?

f) In response, Henry declared himself the head of the Church of England (and got English bishops to go along with it), granted himself an annulment, and sold off most of the land the Catholic Church owned in England

2. Edward VI--Henry died when Edward was nine, and he died when he was 15 in 1553--so most of the decisions made by his Regency council.

3. Mary Tudor--despite Edward’s efforts as he was dying to place his cousin Lady Jane Grey on the throne, his older half-sister Mary had the most legitimate claim to the throne. She attempted to return England to the religion of her mother and herself--Roman Catholicism. To make an example, she had 300 people who refused to convert executed--which put something of a dint in her popularity. She had her half-sister Elizabeth thrown in prison, and then under house arrest, because Mary suspected her of aiding her Protestant foes

a) Religious resistance--there was a sizable whose opposition to this directive was a matter of conscience. Those people derisively known as “Puritans,” influenced by John Calvin, had been agitating since the takeover of the Church of England for doing away with most of the ceremonies of the church (beyond the celibate priesthood) and simplifying worship services

b) Economic resistance--Henry had sold off the land held by monastic orders, and purchasers were resistant to being forced to give up these properties.

4. Elizabeth I--child of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, ascended to the throne when her half-sister Mary died in 1558.

a) Re-established Protestantism

b) The “Virgin Queen” left no heirs, never married

B. House of Stuart

1. James IV--named heir on Elizabeth’s death; son of her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, became James I of England (while also retaining Scottish throne)



2. Charles I--his lack of political acumen led to a contentious relationship with Parliament, and his eventual downfall

a) Dismissal of Parliament--as was the king’s prerogative at the time; his decision to attempt to rule without the consent of Parliament was seen as high-handed, however. He raised money by levying new taxes and customs without consent, and by collecting customs on new imports.

b) Scottish rebellion--Calvinists threatened rebellion, which Charles assumed would be easily put down, but he had no money to spend on raising an army, and had to call Parliament back into session

c) House of Commons demands--

(1) Abolition of new taxes, and pardons for those who had resisted paying

(2) Dissolution of special courts

(3) End of king’s power to dissolve Parliament without that body’s consent

(4) Removal of bishops from House of Lords

(5) Amicable peace with Scottish Calvinists

d) King felt this was giving up too much, and attempted to quash dissent by force by raising a body of loyalists (known as the “Cavaliers”) to arrest leading members of Parliament. Those threatened caught wind of this plan, however, and were able to escape into the walled section of London, where the people there protected them.

III. The New Model Army

A. Harnessing popular discontent

1. Cavaliers--largely upper class bullies who gained a well-deserved reputation for despoiling every area they moved through

2. Resentment against the heavy-handed cavaliers led to street protests and the rise of street preachers who spoke against class privileges--as well as the need to work every day.

3. Rise of the Presbyterians--leading Puritans thought that there should be a uniform system of religious doctrine led by church elders--themselves--so that the “rabble” did not create chaos.



4. Oliver Cromwell--led a cavalry outfit he recruited from among his Puritan associates, made up of volunteers from the “middling classes” dedicated to their religious beliefs and bettering themselves by the dint of their hard work.

a) Cromwell realized that he could only motivate these kinds of people by allowing them to give expression to their values and views.



b) Permitted preachers who attached themselves to the New Model Army to proselytize-not only among the NMA, but among the people in the towns and cities they controlled as well.

5. Battle of Naseby 1645--king’s forces was routed, and he fled to Scotland. The Scots decided to turn him over to Parliament. While the debate went on about what to do with the King, he escaped to the Isle of Wight, where recruited a new army--which was defeated, and he was recaptured. Now realizing that he remained a threat to all their lives while alive, Parliament ordered him beheaded.



6. The Putney Debates and the Levelers--a radical democratic faction of the NMA, reacting against the Long Parliament’s seeming intention to deny them back-pay and send them off to Ireland to quell another disturbance, debated making demands on Parliament for the institution of more democratic measure--a wider granting of the franchise, etc.

a) The Levelers--position frightened the “moderates” of the Presbyterian party, who saw this movement as a dangerous development--as people see most developments that they think will undermine their influence.

b) While excluding the most radical elements, the Presbyterians formed a “council of the Army” half made up of rank and file members, and half officers; they relied upon the practice of deference to persuade the rank and file to go along with the officers’ proposals.