Imagined Communities

I. Imagined Communities--most of us from the United States take the idea of nationalism for granted, but national identity has not always been important in peoples lives--for much of history, local identity was of paramount importance.

A. Definition--nationalism is often difficult to define, but for our purposes we can define the term as the belief that persons living within a defined political boundary, sharing a common language and culture, who identify themselves and others as citizens of a political body.


B. Early examples

1. Monarchies--although the upper classes in a kingdom pledge fidelity to the monarch, others in this early imagined community were asked to view the king as the embodiment of the nation itself.


2. “Free-Born Englishmen”--the English were perhaps the first people to begin to re-imagine this idea of national identity, beginning with the English Civil War.

3. United States--in 1757, most white English speakers viewed themselves as Englishmen; by 1787, these same people viewed themselves as a citizen of a new nation, and a new people--Americans. Ruling elites in the United States also had to integrate non-English speakers into their “imagined community,” and which of these people would be allowed within the community, and who would be excluded.

a) Whiteness as a community marker--very quickly, white English speakers in the United States began to delineate who was a member of their imagined community by using a shifting standard of racial identity called “whiteness.”


b) How the Irish became white--when Irish Catholics began arriving in the United States in large numbers in the late 1840s and early 1850s, they were seen by native whites as “not quite white,” and questionably worthy of being permitted within the imagined community. The Irish were able to use their early ostracization against northern Protestants whites, however, by finding allies within the Democratic Party. By turning out in large numbers on election day, and largely voting as a bloc, they were able to swing votes in urban enclaves, helping the development of urban political machines.

c) Later immigrant groups used this model to carve out places of their own, especially in the larger urban centers. Irish politicians often fostered the growth of this practice, and often were the direct beneficiaries of the practice, winning political office and the benefits that came from that.




4. France--another shift in the ideology of nationalism. With the ending of the monarchy, revolutionary leaders realized that they needed to stir the population to keep foreign political and military leaders from re-establishing a monarchy in the country. They appealed to the people of France to fight the invaders of the homeland; later, that ideology shifts again to spread the benefits of the revolution. Later still, this ideology shifts a third time (under Napoleon), to fighting wars to further their own glory and the prestige of France.



C. Printing press--nationalist ideas were promulgated by the proliferation of affordable books, thanks to the printing press. The rise of the printing created a demand for more material printed in vernacular languages--the languages that people spoke everyday.

1. Histories of national greatness ... the most powerful nations in Europe began to produce histories that sought to explain how they came to their dominate political position--which inevitably portrayed this position happening because of their national superiority over other peoples.

2. ... and Histories of national oppression--minority language and ethnic groups within dominate political groups began to develop their own narratives to explain their inferior positions, narratives that often incorporated tales of betrayal by rival minority groups.

II. Growth of Nationalist Fervor

A. Ireland--the Emerald Isle was a very early colony, where England development many of the techniques of colonial control that they then used on other colonies they came to possess.

1. 1797 United Irishmen--group led by Ulster Protestant Theobold Wolfe Tone, but group itself was nonsectarian, promoted greater independence for Ireland and the re-establishment of full political rights for Roman Catholics in Ireland. This group was defeated by English appeals to Irish Protestants involved in the Orange Order, who were fearful that the rehabilitation of Catholics would undermine their own precarious position.


2. 1810-1847 Daniel O’Connell the Great Emancipator--O’Connell was a young lawyer in Dublin at the time of Wolfe Tone’s armed rising; although he sympathized with the movement’s political objectives, he contended that the objectives had to come from political reform rather than force of arms. Although O’Connell eventually won Catholic Emancipation (the right of Catholic who met other qualifications--largely having to do with the amount of property owned--to participate in political life), he was unsuccessful in other endeavors.


3. Charles Stewart Parnell and Home Rule--after O’Connell’s death in 1847, an Anglo-Irish politician by the name of Isaac Butt established an organization called the Home Rule League to agitate politically for greater Irish independance, while remaining a part of the British union. Parnell joined Butt’s organization, was elected to Parliament, but advocated harder-nosed political action (obstructionism)




a) Irish Republican Brotherhood--group that believed in direct actions to win Irish independence (predecessor of the Irish Republican Army). Also known as Fenians, although that group largely operated outside of Ireland itself. In 1867, the group attempted an armed uprising both in Ireland and in Canada, which failed. Parnell worked closely with the groups, although it is not clear whether he actually joined.



b) Gaelic League--by 1880, a group called the Gaelic Union was formed to “keep alive” the Gaelic language; by that time the number of speakers was limited to only a few pockets in the western regions of Ireland (to this day, the language is only spoken in a few pockets in the western region, although all school children in the country are taught the language). By 1893, the organization was called the Gaelic League, and was promoting “ancient” Irish sports like hurling and Gaelic football, in addition to language instruction.

c) Parnell’s brilliance as a politician, working in conjunction (if in secret) with direct force advocates, advanced the Irish political cause, principally by working with the Liberal Party and its leader, William Gladstone, to further that party’s agenda while also gaining concessions on Irish political concerns short of Home Rule. His involvement with married woman, Kitty O’Shea, ends his political career; Parnell dies shortly afterward.


4. Playing the Orange Card--the struggle for home rule continued without Parnell. The continued dominance of the Liberal Party in British politics led the opposition party, the Conservative (Tory) Party, to return to the Orange Order to disrupt the political cohesion between Liberals and the Irish Party. The Orange Order threatened to secede from a Home Rule Ireland in order to remain “loyal” to the king of England; this helped stall Irish Home Rule from being considered before World War I broke out.


5. Partition of Ireland



a) 1916 Easter Rebellion--radicals within the IRB decided to stage a coup d’etat in Dublin beginning Easter Sunday 1916. Small group managed to hold out in the Main Post Office for a week, but howitzer guns finally forced their surrender. In typical British fashion, they made martyrs of the rebels, who to that point had little public sympathy.


b) 1920 Anglo-Irish War--between British troops (the “Black and Tans”) and the IRB, who fought a guerilla war before accepting a peace treaty which provided most of Ireland with Home Rule--except for six counties in Ulster